Loss of incretin effect is a specific, important, and early characteristic of type 2 diabetes
Other putative origins investigated in large, population-based datasets include chronic autoimmune syndromes such as inflammatory bowel disease and psoriasis [136, 137], and even after thermal injury, especially in extensive injuries and on sun-exposed body parts [138]
Beta-blockers like propranolol manage sympathetic symptoms of hyperthyroidism but do not significantly lower basal metabolic rate
This can contribute to additional weight gain
However, neither the innate nor the adaptive immune response is affected by the DPP-4 inhibitors being used clinically (128), and reassuringly, there is no evidence for any increased risk of infections in the pooled safety analyses (119123) or in the CV safety outcome trials (125127), in line with the view that the catalytic activity of DPP-4 is not necessary for the co-stimulatory role of CD26 in T-cell activation